Planting Styles

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List these styles of garden design in chronological order:

Gardenesque style
The Wild garden
Modern garden style
Picturesque style
Arts and Crafts
Renaissance style
Landscape style

Click to reveal answers 6. Renaissance 7. Landscape style 4. Picturesque style 1. Gardenesque style 5. Arts and Crafts 2. The Wild garden 3. Modern garden style

Which of the garden styles listed were originally designed for large, estate sized gardens?

Which two of the garden styles tends to have the greatest biodiversity of plants per unit area of garden?

Photo A shows a garden area adjacent to a grand property. Which of the following statements about this garden are true?

This is a picturesque garden.
This is a formal style of garden.
The design is likely to feature axial symmetry.
The monoculture of evergreen shrubs results in a highly biodiverse green space.
This garden style is an expression of human's power over nature.
This is a low maintenance garden.

Click to reveal answers 1. False 2. True 3. True 4. False 5. True 6. False

The garden pictured in photo A is in the style of grand Italian gardens that developed during the latter 15th Century.

Name this garden style.
What are the key design concepts that this style is designed around?
State the typical features of this garden style.
How has maintenance of this garden style changed since its creation?
What challenges does this style of garden pose in modern day UK?

1. Name this garden style.

Renaissance style

2. What are the key design concepts that this style is designed around?

Formality and symmetry designed to contrast the informality of natural or rural spaces, and represent the property owner's wealth and power. Renaissance gardens always flowed from the grand house, with planes of symmetry aligning with the building's symmetry.

3. State the typical features of this garden style.

An axial plane of symmetry, potentially with additional planes of symmetry.
Geometric shapes created through the use of tightly clipped hedging and stone or gravel paths.
Parterres, which could be large and elaborate, featuring low, tightly clipped evergreen hedging.
Sloped sites would be terraced to create flat garden areas. Terraces were edged with ornate balustrading and connected with formal stone steps.
Water features such as stone pools in geometric shapes. Some would feature formal fountains.
Paths were straight or followed regular curves. Paths were of gravel or stone.
Compartmentalisation of garden areas using tall, tightly clipped evergreen hedges.
Pergolas with climbers covering them created shaded walkways.
Statues situated in key locations, such as at the end of a pathway to act as a focal point.
Grottoes were created as surprise features.
Bosquets with trees planted in straight lines, often enclosed within a formal hedge.

4. How has maintenance of this garden style changed since its creation?

Mechanisation has made the maintenance of these gardens less arduous, reducing the number of people required per garden area (though they remain relatively high maintenance).

Hedge trimmers allow for more rapid, precise cutting of tightly clipped hedges. Weeding can be undertaken in various ways that are more efficient - such as flame guns or chemicals - rather than solely hand weeding. Any irrigation required can be undertaken with piped water (e.g. via a hose) and automated.

5. What challenges does this style of garden pose in modern day UK?

This style of garden is high maintenance, meaning it's relatively expensive per area of garden in a time when garden budgets are significantly less than during the Renaissance era. The reliance on monocultures makes this style vulnerable to new pests and pathogens. For example Buxus sempervirens (box) used for low, tightly clipped hedging is now vulnerable to box blight, box rust and box moth caterpillar. Much will need replacing with alternatives, such as Ilex crenata (Japanese holly) - a financial and labour burden on the garden. Treating these pathogens and pest on stands of box is time consuming, expensive and increases the range of toxins in the environment, harming biodiversity.

In a world where biodiversity is declining, this style of garden does not support high biodiversity. Monocultures of evergreen woody plants that are regularly disturbed during clipping don't support a wide range of garden wildlife (e.g. nesting birds will be disturbed). The Renaissance garden style is not compatible with creating biodiverse green spaces that aim to reverse biodiversity declines in the UK.

This photo shows a green space that gives a sense of a Landscape garden.

Name a famous designer of Landscape gardens during the era that they were created.
State the main features of a Landscape garden.
Describe how Landscape gardens contrast with the Renaissance style that preceded them.
Evaluate Landscape gardens in terms of their biodiversity value.

1. Name a famous designer of Landscape gardens during the era that they were created.

William Kent, Lancelot 'Capability' Brown

2. State the main features of a Landscape garden.

Asymmetry and a sense of informality that mirrored country landscapes around the property.
Informal, sinuous paths that wound through lawns, meadow and woodland.
Rolling hills that mirror distant fields, enabling a 'borrowed view' that made the property appear even bigger than it was.
Lawns going right to the house with uninterrupted views into the distance.
A Ha-ha separated land near the house from fields beyond, preventing farm animals from accessing the garden near the house. This preserved an uninterrupted view of distant hills.
Naturalistic 'rivers' and lakes were created to enhance informality and interest.
Copses of trees were sited to subtly frame views and create a sense of scale in these large gardens.
Garden buildings included temples, statues, castles, gothic structures, grottoes, ornate arched bridges including Palladian bridges. Some of these buildings were follies.

3. Describe how Landscape gardens contrast with the Renaissance style that preceded them.

Landscape gardens are fundamentally informal and reflect the distant countryside, blurring the boundary between Landscape garden and land beyond. In contrast, Renaissance gardens are formal with a clear contrast between the garden and surrounding informal landscape - a demonstration of people's power over nature.

Renaissance gardens are based on symmetry whereas Landscape gardens have an asymmetrical layout.

Landscape gardens have sinuous, winding paths whereas Renaissance gardens have straight paths with right angled corners, or follow regular curves.

Landscape gardens have naturalistic style plantings that are not formally clipped whereas Renaissance gardens feature tightly clipped evergreen hedges and trees planted in formal straight lines.

Landscape gardens embrace natural landform with rolling hills and slopes, whereas Renaissance gardens terraced slopes.

Landscape gardens had water features that looked 'natural', with sinuous edged lakes and rivers that have sloping sides and planting at the edges. In contrast, Renaissance gardens' water features have geometric shaped water features with stone surround and vertical sides. They typically would not have planting at the edges.

Landscape gardens would often have a variety of different species in one area, for example in meadows or naturalistic woodland copses. Unlike Landscape gardens, Renaissance gardens generally have monocultures of plantings, for example Buxus sempervirens (box) used for tightly clipped, low parterre hedging.

4. Evaluate Landscape gardens in terms of their biodiversity value.

Landscape gardens have high biodiversity value. They feature a wide variety of habitat types, including woodland, woodland edge, lawns, meadow, lakes and other watercourses. The design of this naturalistic landscape meant there was relatively little maintenance/disturbance to areas, allowing wildlife to flourish. Many native species feature, benefitting native wildlife.

However, Landscape gardens feature large areas of lawn which is relatively low in biodiversity value. Although flowering lawn plants such as Trifolium repens (white clover) offer nectar for pollinators, these large lawn areas offer little opportunity for a range of fodder and nesting sites.

What style of garden is inspired by Landscape paintings that inspire a sense of the sublime?
Which key garden designer evolved the Landscape garden into this new style?
State how this new style differed from Landscape gardens.
How does the maintenance of this style compare to Landscape gardens?

1. What style of garden is inspired by Landscape paintings that inspire a sense of the sublime?

Picturesque style

2. Which key garden designer evolved the Landscape garden into this new style?

Humphrey Repton

3. State how this new style differed from Landscape gardens.

Picturesque gardens featured distinct foreground, middle ground and background styles. The foreground, near the house, featured more formal elements such as walled gardens, formal terraces and flower borders - unlike Landscape gardens. The middle ground was similar to Landscape gardens. The background aimed to exhibit a more rugged landscape with precipitous paths and views that inspire awe. Landscape gardens' backdrop was typically quite homogenous to the Landscape garden.

4. How does the maintenance of this style compare to Landscape gardens?

Whilst the middle ground and background of Landscape and Picturesque gardens had similar maintenance requirements, the foreground areas were much higher maintenance. Walled gardens, flower borders and formal parterres all require higher maintenance per garden area than the more naturalistic middle and background areas.

Images 1 - 4 all show aspects of Gardenesque gardens. For each image, state how it represents the Gardenesque style.

Image 1 Formal parterre featuring exotic plants, such as the taller Canna's pictured. Geometric bed shapes reflect the adjacent building's formality.

Image 2 Exotic plants were planted as individual specimens, allowing them to be admired from all angles. These were often planted in lawns where they would stand out.

Image 3 This formal parterre features carpet bedding with extensive monocultures of colourful bedding plants.

Image 4 Victorian invention led to the production of display and production glasshouses, allowing tender exotic plants to be grown. Display glasshouses were often ornate and featured newly plants recently discovered by European plant hunters.

Explain the significance of this (replica) Wardian case to the Picturesque garden style.

The Wardian case allowed living plant specimens to be transported from distant lands back to the UK on ships. This meant plants could be successfully be introduced to garden collections with a higher success rate, especially for tender plants and those which were difficult to obtain seed from, or propagate from seed.

Prior to the Wardian case, plant mortality aboard ships was a major barrier to the introduction of new plants to the UK.

Match each feature to one of the four garden styles:

Ha-ha's meant views to distant countryside is uninterrupted
Paths are straight with right angled corners
Exotic plants were sited as specimens so they could be appreciated from all angles
Gently rolling hills with sinuous paths allowing exploration
Native plants are not considered suitable to this style
Naturalistic rivers and lakes were created, surrounded by native plantings
Terraces connected with formal stone steps
Areas near the house included parterres, flower borders and walled garden(s)
Precipitous paths created excitement and inspired a sense of awe
Formal parterres and island beds featured carpet bedding, often with tender perennials
Formal parterres with extensive low, tightly clipped hedging
Ornate glasshouses displayed exotic plants
Statues, temples, and various follies contrast the informality of naturalistic garden layout and plantings
Fountains in geometric-shaped stone pools
The entire garden layout is formal, based around planes of symmetry

Renaissance style

Landscape style

Picturesque style

Gardenesque style

Click to reveal answers 1. Landscape style 2. Renaissance style 3. Gardenesque style 4. Landscape style (and also found in Picturesque and Gardenesque style) 5. Gardenesque style 6. Landscape style 7. Renaissance style 8. Picturesque style 9. Picturesque style 10. Gardenesque style 11. Renaissance style 12. Gardenesque style 13. Landscape style 14. Renaissance style 15. Renaissance style

Each number relates to a specific word, so if you think (1)________ is 'bananas' then if (1)________ appears later on in the passage, 'bananas' is the missing word.

Arts and Crafts garden style started in the (1) _____ century and contrasted the concurrent (2) ________ style found in large parks and estate gardens. William (3) ________ initiated the Arts and Crafts movement. The Arts and Craft style features a (4) ________ layout with informal plantings within beds. Garden areas are separated into different areas, known as garden (5)________. These often have different (6) ________, such as the white garden at Sissinghurst. The (5) ________ are separated by walls or formal (7) ________, which are kept tightly clipped. The hard landscaping materials reflected materials seen in the main (8) ________, making the garden an extension of this. Summer houses and other features would be carefully made by local (9) ________ people, utilising local skills.

A major feature of Arts and Crafts gardens is their beds and borders, which were largely planted with hardy (10) ________ perennials and flowering shrubs. In contrast to the formal garden layout, planting in beds and borders featured (11) ________ of perennials, with colour scheming and repetition. The famous garden writer and plantswoman, (12) ________ ________ was an advocate of the Arts and Crafts style. She promoted colour schemes, often with soft pastel colours, using curated planting designs. However, she also advocated welcoming (13) ________-________ annuals and biennials to populate borders, creating a more natural look. This would be carefully managed to preserve the design intent. Typically, border designs had (14) ________ plants toward the back of borders and (15) ________ plants at the front, enabling the carefully curated colour combinations to best work together.

Arts and Crafts required highly (16) ________ gardeners who would work to perfect design intentions using their vast plant knowledge and practical skills. This was augmented, for the first time, by the popularised practice of property owners partaking in (17) ________.

Arts and Crafts garden style started in the (1) 19th century and contrasted the concurrent (2) Gardenesque style found in large parks and estate gardens. William (3) Morris initiated the Arts and Crafts movement. The Arts and Craft style features a (4) formal layout with informal plantings within beds. Garden areas are separated into different areas, known as garden (5) rooms. These often have different (6) themes, such as the white garden at Sissinghurst. The (5) rooms are separated by walls or formal (7) hedges, which are kept tightly clipped. The hard landscaping materials reflected materials seen in the main (8) house, making the garden an extension of this. Summer houses and other features would be carefully made by local (9) crafts people, utilising local skills.

A major feature of Arts and Crafts gardens is their beds and borders, which were largely planted with hardy (10) herbaceous perennials and flowering shrubs. In contrast to the formal garden layout, planting in beds and borders featured (11) drifts of perennials, with colour scheming and repetition. The famous garden writer and plantswoman, (12) Gertrude Jekyll was an advocate of the Arts and Crafts style. She promoted colour schemes, often with soft pastel colours, using curated planting designs. However, she also advocated welcoming (13) self-sown annuals and biennials to populate borders, creating a more natural look. This would be carefully managed to preserve the design intent. Typically, border designs had (14) taller plants toward the back of borders and (15) shorter plants at the front, enabling the carefully curated colour combinations to best work together.

Arts and Crafts required highly (16) skilled gardeners who would work to perfect design intentions using their vast plant knowledge and practical skills. This was augmented, for the first time, by the popularised practice of property owners partaking in (17) gardening.

Hint: the missing words in a random order self-sown, Morris, herbaceous, Gardenesque, rooms, gardening, formal, taller, themes, house, skilled, drifts, Gertrude Jekyll, shorter, hedges, crafts, 19th

Extra Hint: (1) 19th

Extra Hint: (2) Gardenesque

Extra Hint: (3) Morris

Extra Hint: (4) formal

Extra Hint: (5) rooms

Extra Hint: (6) themes

Extra Hint: (7) hedges

Extra Hint: (8) house

Extra Hint: (9) crafts

Extra Hint: (10) herbaceous

Extra Hint: (11) drifts

Extra Hint: (12) Gertrude Jekyll

Extra Hint: (13) self-sown

Extra Hint: (14) taller

Extra Hint: (15) shorter

Extra Hint: (16) skilled

Extra Hint: (17) gardening

The following statements about Arts and Crafts gardens are either a similarity or a contrast to the Renaissance, Landscape, Picturesque and Gardenesque styles.

a. Decide if each statement is either a similarity or a contrast to these styles.

b. If similar, state which of the garden styles are reflected in the feature of an Arts and Craft garden.

Garden areas were compartmentalised using clipped hedges
Extensive monocultures of low, clipped hedging in geometric shapes
Drifts of herbaceous perennials filled borders
The garden was designed as a unique feature that contrasted the surrounding countryside
Paths tended to be straight with right angled corners, or follow regular curves
Self-seeded plants might be left to grow
The property owner would partake in practical gardening activities
Water features were formal
No native plants would be used
Follies were used as garden features

Click to reveal answers 1. a. Similarity b. Renaissance 2. a. Contrast (this is a Renaissance garden feature) 3. a. Contrast 4. a. Similarity b. Renaissance, Gardenesque 5. a. Similarity b. Renaissance 6. a. Similarity b. Landscape, Picturesque 7. a. Contrast 8. a. Similarity b. Renaissance, Picturesque 9. a. Contrast b. Gardenesque 10. a. Contrast

This photo shows a garden area that follows principles of the Wild Garden style.

Who pioneered the Wild Garden style?
State the features shown in this photo that indicate this is a Wild Garden style.
What key principles differentiate a Wild Garden from an Arts and Crafts garden?

1. Who pioneered the Wild Garden style?

William Robinson

2. State the features shown in this photo that indicate this is a Wild Garden style.

This wildflower meadow contains a mix of different species that grow adjacent to each other without strict curation.
The curving path cut through the meadow is informal.
The shrub on the left has meadow growing up to its edge, as might happen in a wild space.

3. What key principles differentiate a Wild Garden from an Arts and Crafts garden?

Wild Garden style embraces the self-seeding of plants, which will - over time - alter the border composition, unlike in Arts and Crafts gardens where borders are more tightly curated.
Fundamentally the Wild Garden style is an informal, naturalistic style both in planting schemes and garden layout. In contrast, whilst Arts and Crafts gardens have relatively informal planting schemes, their layout is formal.

This photo shows a Modern Garden style.

What features seen in this photo suggest it's a modern garden style?
How is the Modern Garden style different from the Arts and Crafts, and Wild Garden style that precede it?

1. What features seen in this photo suggest it's a modern garden style?

Clean, angular lines with smooth, regular stone or concrete-effect terrace walls. Matching pale gravel harmonises and reinforces the hard landscaping.

The plant palate is relatively limited with a lot of repetition. Space is left between plants so the hard landscaping is more prominent.

The planting palate gives an airy feel, contrasting the hard materials. There is little to soften the edges, e.g. with creeping plants. Instead the hard materials are allowed to stand out with clean, crisp lines.

2. How is the Modern Garden style different from the Arts and Crafts, and Wild Garden style that precede it?

Modern Gardens typically utilise more modern materials, such as metals or smooth-cut stone with even, regular shapes. Arts and Crafts, and Wild Gardens used more rustic materials, such as uneven Yorkstone pavers, or dry stone walls for terracing.
Often found in urban areas, Modern Gardens take inspiration from their urban surrounds with layouts that reflect nearby urban geometry. Arts and Crafts, and Wild Gardens are typically situated more rurally. Garden layout in Arts and Crafts gardens, at least partly, flowed from the style of the main house. Wild Gardens would have an informal layout reflecting rural surrounds.
Modern gardens often feature a patio near the house with a free-flow between house interior and garden. Arts and Craft gardens would feature summer houses and gathering areas that were often more distant from the main house.
Modern Gardens tend to have a more restricted plant palette with plant selected for their suitability to the microclimate and resilience to climate change, especially in more recently developed Modern Gardens. Arts and Crafts, and Wild Gardens didn't originally have a focus on climate change resilient plantings, though the plants were generally selected to be suited to the site's microclimate and soil conditions.

The photographs below show different styles of garden. For each image, name the garden style represented.

- In some cases the image represents a natural landscape that has inspired a particular style.

- In some cases a particular feature is noted in the question box beneath the photo.

If you feel the image potentially fits more than one style, name all the styles you think it could apply to.

What garden style is this? Wild garden

What garden style is this? Arts and Crafts with an element of the Wild garden style: - Arts and Crafts as there is a curated planting scheme, clipped lawn with a sharp edge adjacent to the border. - The informal, sinuous edge of the lawn is more reminiscent of a Wild garden.

What garden style is this? Arts and Crafts garden (unlike a Wild garden style, the orchard trees are planted in rows and the grass is largely mown low)

What garden style is this? Modern style

What garden style is this? Gardenesque style (large, ornamental glasshouses were first seen during this period)

What garden style is this? Arts and Crafts Potentially with elements of the Wild garden style within the herbaceous borders.

What garden style is this? Renaissance style

What garden style might this scene inspire? Picturesque garden

In which garden style were specimen plants grown in isolation? Gardenesque garden

What garden style does this water feature best fit? Renaissance style

What garden style is this? Gardenesque style Note the specimen tree visible from all angles and use of carpet bedding in island beds

What garden style is this? Arts and Crafts

What garden style is this? Wild garden (Note the self-seeded plants growing from paving, informal drifts of plants, mixed colour palette)

What garden style is this? Arts and Crafts

What garden style is this? Arts and Crafts

What garden style is this? Modern style (note the very simplistic planting palette with multi-stemmed trees and loose/not tightly clipped shrubs on the right - this differentiates it from the restricted but more formal plant palette and style of the Renaissance style)

What garden style is this? Arts and Crafts

What garden style is this? Landscape style

What garden style is this? Wild garden

What garden style might this scene inspire? Landscape garden

What garden style might this scene inspire? Picturesque garden

What garden style is this? Renaissance style

What garden style might this scene inspire? Landscape style

What garden style is this? Wild garden

What garden style does this round water feature best fit? Renaissance style

What garden style is this? Landscape style It could also fit into a Picturesque style garden

What garden style is this? Gardenesque style (large, ornamental glasshouses were first seen during this period)

What garden style is this? Modern style (note use of modern materials, asymmetry, geometric shapes)

What garden style is this? Wild garden (Log piles adjacent to hedge, informal planting with a mixed colour palette, informal bark chip path)

What garden style is this? Gardenesque (carpet bedding was typical of this style)

What garden style is this? Modern style (note use of modern materials like corten steel and use of geometric shapes)

What garden style is this enclosed area? Renaissance style and Picturesque style

Which of the following features are typical of formal gardens?

Sinuous paths
Enclosing hedges
Monochromatic colour schemes
Pools with a square outline
Native mixed-species hedges
Axial symmetry
Low hedging enclosing planted areas
Planting schemes designed to maximise biodiversity
Straight paths
Wildlife ponds
Carpet bedding
Fountains

Click to reveal answers 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12

1. This photo shows a formal garden. List the formal features shown in this image.

2. Suggest which garden style is represented here.

3. Evaluate the impacts of this style of garden on biodiversity.

1. This photo shows a formal garden. List the formal features shown in this image.

Symmetry runs down the centre of this garden area.
There is a focal point - the statue - central to the axial symmetry.
A straight gravel path runs down the plane of axial symmetry.
Tightly clipped evergreen columns line the central path, sitting exactly opposite each other.
Low, tightly clipped hedging surrounds the planted bed.
Beds planted with low growing bedding plants.
Extensive lawn contained within mirror-image shaped beds.

2. Suggest which garden style is represented here.

Renaissance style

3. Evaluate the impacts of this style of garden on biodiversity.

This style has a minimal plant palette with extensive monocultures. This means the plant biodiversity is minimal. In turn, there is a limited range of food and shelter for for garden wildlife. Regular disturbance by garden users and garden maintenance deters some garden wildlife, limiting its potential biodiversity. As monocultures are vulnerable to pest or pathogen attack, such as box moth caterpillar on box hedging, treatment may be necessary. If pesticides are used they can kill garden wildlife. The formal lawn is likely treated with selective weedkiller, reducing its potential biodiversity. The bedding plants also need changing twice per year, disturbing the soil.

The positive biodiversity aspects include the provision of shelter and food in comparison to hard surfaces (e.g. car parks). Trees that are less regularly disturbed offer habitat for wildlife, such as nesting birds. Some of the bedding plants offer nectar for pollinators. This can be especially beneficial in winter where winter bedding provides bumblebees with a food source on mild days when they fly. Established bedding and hedging offers a sheltered space through which wildlife can travel, having some value (though low value in comparison to many other garden styles, e.g. Wild gardens) as a wildlife corridor within an urban space.

What are monochromatic and dichromatic colour schemes?

Monochromatic colour schemes use only one colour, for example a block of red flowered Pelargonium 'Best Red' used as bedding.

Dichromatic colour schemes use two contrasting colours, such as a chequerboard effect using the above red flowered Pelargonium with a white flowered Pelargonium 'Designer White'.

Typically these colour schemes use cultivars of perennial plants or F1 seeds in order to best achieve uniform colour effect.

What does 'geometric layout' mean?

What is the difference between a formal hedge and an informal hedge?

A formal hedge is a strictly uniform shape - either a straight line or a regular curve. Informal hedges can also be straight lines or regular curves, but in addition can be irregular shapes.
A formal hedge is kept tightly clipped. Informal hedges are not kept tightly clipped and develop a looser shape as they grow between cuts.
A formal hedge consists of the same plant species or cultivar, creating an even aesthetic. Informal hedges contain various different species that create a mixed colour and texture aesthetic. This includes a mix of evergreen and deciduous plants, which would never happen in a formal hedge.
Formal hedges do not have a herbaceous understory - plants growing beneath would be considered weeds. Informal hedges can have a herbaceous understory and planting that grows right up to and amongst the base of the hedge.

1. What aspects of this image show formal garden elements?

2. What aspects of this image are not typical of formal garden elements?

3. What style of garden is this?

1. What aspects of this image show formal garden elements?

There is a straight stone paved path with a right angled path branching off it.
There is a wall at the end of the path that appears to enclose this garden area.
There is a neatly clipped lawn with neat edges that appears to be weed-free.

2. What aspects of this image are not typical of formal garden elements?

The right hand border has a loose, informal planting style with several colours including yellow, white and purple.
The right hand border plants spill over the edge of the formal path, softening its hard aesthetic.

3. What style of garden is this?

Arts and Crafts garden

1. What aspects of this image show formal planting elements?

2. What hard landscaping elements show formal garden elements?

1. What aspects of this image show formal planting elements?

Each bed has a monochromatic planting scheme.
The beds have a geometric outline with straight edges.
The lawn appears to be free from forbs and has neat, straight edges.
The area is enclosed with a hedge that appears to be one species. It's clipped to a neat, straight line.

2. What hard landscaping elements show formal garden elements?

The central path lies on the plane of axial symmetry.
The path is straight.
There is a distant focal pint on the line of axial symmetry.

Which of the following features are typical of informal gardens?

Wildlife pond
Dichromatic colour scheme
Square lawn
Wildflower meadow
A 'cool colour' perennial flower border
Enclosing Taxus baccata (yew) hedges
A rectangular bed with one rose cultivar
A bark chip path through a wooded area
An oval island bed in a lawn
Self-sown annuals within flower borders
A lawn with a sinuous edge
Topiary

Click to reveal answers 1, 4, 5, 8, 10, 11

1. What style of garden is this?

2. Justify your answer to Q1.

3. Describe what makes the right hand border an informal planting scheme.

4. State the formal planted elements that can be seen in this image.

1. What style of garden is this?

Arts and Crafts garden

2. Justify your answer to Q1.

The layout is formal with an enclosing wall and hedge, and straight turf path with a right angled corner. The wall has an ornate gate that is likely demonstrating local craft skills. The borders have an informal planting scheme with a mixed cool-colour palette, softening the formal elements. This is all typical of Arts and Crafts gardens.

3. Describe what makes the right hand border an informal planting scheme.

There are a variety of different plant species and growth habits. Herbaceous perennials soften the bed's edge alongside the straight turf path, and are not planted in a uniform pattern, e.g. straight lines or chequerboard. There is a range of flower colours, all in cool shades including pink, peach and purple. The hard, formal wall is softened by climbers, such as the rose in flower. The wall climbers do not appear to be planted at regular, uniform spacings.

4. State the formal planted elements that can be seen in this image.

There is a tightly clipped hedge along the left hand side of the turf path. The turf path is straight with a right angled corner. There are spheres of a tightly clipped plant, likely Buxus sempervirens (box) or a box alternative, sitting symmetrically either side of the ornate gate.

1. State what makes the planting in this image informal.

2. What non-living materials enhance the sense of informality?

1. State what makes the planting in this image informal.

There is a mixed colour palate with white, yellow, orange/copper, blue, purple and more. The plants are loosely arranged with different plants intermingling with their neighbours. There doesn't appear to be any regularity in their positioning. Heights and forms vary, with taller spires adjacent to more mounded habits.

2. What non-living materials enhance the sense of informality?

There is a bark chip path which blends with the soft aesthetic of the planted border. The border is edged with a woven fence that utilises flexible twiggy woody prunings, providing a naturalistic aesthetic.

[Point of interest - the woven fence is made from birch, which is highly flexible when freshly cut].

Informal planting schemes can use drifts of plants.

What is meant by the term 'drifts of plants'

Drifts of plants refers to borders where groupings of herbaceous perennials or (smaller) shrubs interlock along the border in an irregular pattern. This creates a dense planting scheme where perennials are carefully combined to create specific effects of colour, height and form.

The grouping of a particular species or cultivar is typically repeated through the border, enabling repetition to help acheive the desired effect.

What are matrix plantings?

Matrix plantings utilise drifts of perennials, with varied size clumps. This creates a more varied mosaic. In addition to drifts of perennials, extra plants are inserted seemingly at random to create a more detailed effect. For example, if the drifts of perennials use plants of mounded form, the extra dotted plants could have a vertical form, such as Verbascum olympicum which has tall, upright inflorescences.

How can woodland plantings be made informal?

(For example, in contrast to the bosquets of Renaissance gardens)

Which of the following garden styles predominantly or exclusively feature informal planting?

Renaissance gardens
Landscape gardens
Picturesque gardens
Gardenesque gardens
Arts and Crafts gardens
Wild gardens
Modern gardens

Click to reveal answers Landscape gardens Picturesque gardens Arts and Crafts gardens Wild gardens Modern gardens

The image shows an informal water feature.

1. What features make this an informal water feature?

2. How does this contrast to a formal pool?

3. What impact do informal ponds have on a garden's biodiversity?

4. Name other informal water-related features that gardens can contain?

1. What features make this an informal water feature?

The pond's shape is irregular without straight edges or regular curves.
Planting at the edges softens the pool's periphery.
There are sloping sides visible, for example the pebble beach on the right.
Irregularly placed rocks on the left create a naturalistic feel.

2. How does this contrast to a formal pool?

Formal pools have regular shapes, such as square, rectangle or circle - there is always at least one plane of symmetry.
Formal pools are edged with hard landscape materials such as stone, without planting at the edges to soften the formal aesthetic.
Formal pools have vertical sides.
Formal pools do not have irregularly placed objects. In contrast, they might have a central fountain or statue.

3. What impact do informal ponds have on a garden's biodiversity?

Informal ponds have sloping sides, water at a range of depths, and planting within the pond and at the edges. This provides a range of habitat niches for different plants and wildlife, vastly enhancing garden biodiversity. Some wildlife species such as frogs, toads, newts, small fish and aquatic invertebrates can inhabit the pond and gain a permanent presence in a garden - a boost to biodiversity. Sloping sides means wildlife can enter/exit the water easily, including wildlife that come to drink and/or bathe in the pool - meaning more wildlife is attracted to the garden. Planting at the periphery provides wildlife cover from predators, enabling a greater range of wildlife to utilise the pond. Pond and marginal plants such as Myositis scorpoides offer nectar for pollinators, further enhancing biodiversity potential of the pond.

4. Name other informal water-related features that gardens can contain.

Cadcades/waterfalls
Naturalistic streams
Rain gardens
Swales

This example of a colour wheel is useful in considering colour combinations in a garden.

What are complimentary colours?
What are harmonising colours?
Name three hot colours
Name three cool colours
What principles of colour theory are commonly applied to carpet bedding?
Describe the colour theory principles usually seen in Arts and Crafts gardens' herbaceous borders.

1. What are complimentary colours?

Colours that sit opposite each other on the colour wheel, such as purple and yellow, or green and red.

2. What are harmonising colours?

Colours that sit next to each other on the colour wheel, such as orange and yellow, or blue and purple.

3. Name three hot colours

Red, orange, yellow (also bright pink)

4. Name three cool colours

Purple, blue, green (also primrose yellow, white, pastel shades of pink)

5. What principles of colour theory are commonly applied to carpet bedding?

Carpet bedding often used complimentary colours to create contrast between blocks of different bedding plants, better emphasising the design.

6. Describe the colour theory principles usually seen in Arts and Crafts gardens' herbaceous borders.

Arts and Crafts gardens typically used harmonising colours, usually in pastel shades, to create a soft colour aesthetic. Sometimes complimentary colours were used, but usually in pastel shades. Some garden rooms would feature one flower colour, such as white gardens. These might also use silver-leaved plants as a harmonising colour amongst white flowers.

The photo shows a square planted area during summer.

What style of planting is shown?
Name the garden style this type of planting was commonly seen in.
Describe how height and form have been considered in the selection of plants in this planting scheme.
What are the sustainability considerations of a scheme like this?

1. What style of planting is shown?

Carpet bedding

2. Name the garden style this type of planting was commonly seen in.

Gardenesque gardens

3. Describe how height and form have been considered in the selection of plants in this planting scheme.

The bedding scheme is edged with a low growing plant with pale, potentially variegated leaves. Contrasting these are low growing maroon and lime green bedding plants. The maroon leaved plant is a complimentary colour to the lime green plants, light-leaved edging and taller plants. This emphasises the layout in this design. Taller plants with green leaves provide a contrasting vertical element. They have dark salmon coloured flowers that are relatively harmonious with the maroon leaves, but complimentary with the other bedding plants. This creates contrast and focal interest in this design.

4. What are the sustainability considerations of a scheme like this?

Summer bedding plants are either grown in heated glasshouses on-site, or bought in. If grown on site, the glasshouses require heating, which typically has a carbon footprint. The manufacture, transport, construction and maintenance of glasshouses also has a carbon footprint. Growing containerised plants has a water footprint, and planted summer bedding typically has a water footprint as it requires irrigation in dry weather. The planting and removal of summer bedding also disturbs the soil, harming soil biodiversity. There is the additional risk that glasshouse pests could be brought outdoors for summer. These could spread to nearby hardy plants, potentially infesting them (e.g. glasshouse whitefly).

If plants are bought in, their production also has a carbon and water footprint, as well as transport carbon footprint. Plants imported to a garden are a biosecurity threat - potentially new pests or pathogens could be introduced.

The photo shows a planted area in early June.

This border is planted with non-woody plants. What type of border is this?
What style of garden would this border commonly be found in?
What ideas of colour theory can be seen here?
How are plant heights and forms used in this area?

1. This border is planted with non-woody plants. What type of border is this?

Herbaceous border

2. What style of garden would this border commonly be found in?

Arts and Crafts garden

3. What ideas of colour theory can be seen here?

There are largely harmonising colours with blue, purple, green and white. Complimentary colours are used with orange and blue/purple/green.

4. How are plant heights and forms used in this area?

The border is edged with a low, mounded plant. The border centre has generally mounded forms, merging with the edging. Orange flowers are held at a similar height, emphasising this mounded middle-layer. The back of the border has tall inflorescences of purple flowers that contrast the front and middle mounded forms. In the foreground, vertical blue/purple inflorescences contrast the mounded edging and middle-layer.

The photo shows a planted area in summer.

The borders are planted with both herbaceous and woody plants. What type of border is this?
What style of garden would the border pictured likely be found in?
What ideas of colour theory can be seen here?
What is the role of turf in this area?
How are border plant heights and forms used in this area?

1. The borders are planted with both herbaceous and woody plants. What type of border is this?

Mixed border

[that means a mix of woody and herbaceous plants]

2. What style of garden would the border pictured likely be found in?

Arts and Crafts garden

3. What ideas of colour theory can be seen here?

This border uses harmonising colours, largely in shades of green, with white flowers seen on the left.

4. What is the role of turf in this area?

Turf is used to create a pathway through this area.
The turf forms a horizontal plane, a void, leading the eye through this area to the focal point statue/ornament at the end of the path.
The turf is a light green in (relative) contrast to the dark green, vertical conifers.

5. How are border plant heights and forms used in this area?

The borders predominantly have lower, mounded foliage plants that starkly contrast the tall, distinctly vertical dark green conifers. The upright conifers are repeated down the border to lead the eye toward the distant focal point. At the far end of the turf path a vertical, flat-topped hedge/topiary form contrasts the conical, pointed tips of the conifers.

The photo shows a planted area in late winter.

There are tall canopy trees, a woody understory and herbaceous ground layer. What type of garden is this?
Is the planting style here typical of: a) Gardenesque style, b) Arts and Crafts style, c) Wild Garden style, d) Modern garden style?
How are plants used to seasonal effect here?
What are the benefits of leaving autumn leaf litter on the soil surface?

1. There are tall canopy trees, a woody understory and herbaceous ground layer. What type of garden is this?

Woodland garden

2. Is the planting style here typical of: a) Gardenesque style, b) Arts and Crafts style, c) Wild Garden style, d) Modern garden style?

c) Wild garden

3. How are plants used to seasonal effect here?

Low-growing herbaceous plants such as the yellow flowered Narcissus sp. or cv. (daffodil) flower in late winter when little else is in bloom, creating a colourful understory. There is a pink flowered woody plant in bloom [a Camellia cv.], contrasting the yellow of the daffodil. This creates additional interest, and is more prominent whilst woody deciduous plants in the foreground are not in leaf.

The deciduous and evergreen woody plants create structural interest throughout the year. Deciduous woody plants have a sequence of seasonal interest between spring, when they leaf out, summer in leaf, autumn leaf colour, and winter branch structure. Additionally, some have prominent flowers, adding seasonal interest.

4. What are the benefits of leaving autumn leaf litter on the soil surface?

Leaf litter blocks light from the soil surface, preventing unwanted seed germination, e.g. of ephemerals with quiescent seed, or dormant seed from germinating after winter stratification if the seeds also need light. This reduces the potential weed population, reducing competition for light, water and nutrients with desired plants.

Leaf litter acts as food for detritivores and decomposers, which ultimately turn leaf litter into humus. Therefore leaf litter benefits garden biodiversity, and humus improves the soil's water and nutrient holding capacity. This reduces the need for irrigation in dry weather, such as when establishing new plants. Availability of soil nutrients improves, better enabling healthy plant growth.

The photo shows a planted area in late summer.

What style of garden is this: a) Modern garden, b) Landscape garden, c) Arts and Crafts garden, d) Gardenesque garden?
How are plants used to create seasonal interest in this area?
There is a low, enclosing hedging plant adjacent to the path. What adaptations is it likely to have that suits its use in this area?

1. What style of garden is this: a) Modern garden, b) Landscape garden, c) Arts and Crafts garden, d) Gardenesque garden?

c) Arts and Crafts garden

2. How are plants used to create seasonal interest in this area?

The taller enclosing hedges, and low border-edging hedges provide year-round interest with their height and form. The herbaceous plants in the border create seasonal interest in the growing season, spring and summer, with emerging foliage, stems and flowers. They also provide winter interest with their dead stems and seed heads.

3. There is a low, enclosing hedging plant adjacent to the path. What adaptations is it likely to have that suits its use in this area?

This hedging plant has small, reduced leaves and a compact, dense growth habit, meaning it can be clipped to a tight shape and won't quickly grow, needing another cut within a short time period. It's also tolerant of regular clipping. This plant will be evergreen to provide an even aesthetic year-round.

This photo was taken during the month of August. In February the soil was bare and did not have any dormant perennial plants' organs of perennation in it.

What type of lifecycle do these flowering plants have?
What colour scheme is used here?
What garden style is this area best classified as?
Describe the sequence of seasonal interest in the foreground of this area from spring to winter.
Are these plants likely to produce orthodox or recalcitrant seeds?
What are the benefits of this area to garden wildlife?

1. What type of lifecycle do these flowering plants have?

Annual

2. What colour scheme is used here?

Mixed colour scheme

3. What garden style is this area best classified as?

Wild garden (wildflower areas fit within Wild Garden concepts)

4. Describe the sequence of seasonal interest in the foreground of this area from spring to winter.

This wildflower area will be predominantly green in spring as seeds germinate and juvenile plants establish. In summer this area is very colourful as plants reach their adult phase and produce flowers. In autumn there will be an abundance of seed heads, and some plants will continue to flower until frost. In winter there is interest from the tawny, dead stems and seed heads.

5. Are these plants likely to produce orthodox or recalcitrant seeds?

Orthodox seeds

6. What are the benefits of this area to garden wildlife?

This area provides an abundance of nectar for pollinators - such as bees and butterflies - in summer. Its stems and leaves provide shelter, nesting space and forage for wildlife. E.g. field mice nest in long herbaceous growth; cinnabar moth caterpillars feed on Senecio vulgaris (ragwort) that may grow in the wildflower area. As seeds develop they provide food for animals such as birds and mice. Dead herbaceous material is food for detritivores such as woodlice and earthworms, benefitting soil surface and soil-dwelling wildlife. Overwintering insects such as ladybirds can be found amongst the dead herbaceous stems.

Match the feature (letters) to its potential use or uses in a garden setting (numbers).

Each feature (letters) matches one or more uses (numbers).

Garden feature:

a. A tree situated within a lawn.

b. A 1.8m high hedge planted as a garden boundary.

c. Shrub roses planted 2m apart and repeated down a long border.

d. A straight gravel path between herbaceous borders.

e. Taxus baccata (yew) columns planted at even intervals down a border.

f. A pergola situated in an open space, covered with Wisteria floribunda, which forms a dense canopy atop the pergola.

g. A tall grass planted between a relaxation patio and an area of recreational turf.

h. A log pile set beneath a deciduous shrub.

i. A Passiflora caerulea (blue passionflower) growing up the south facing wall of a house.

j. An area of wildflower meadow.

Uses:

Height
Structure
Shade
Wildlife
Horizontal plane
Vertical lines
Screening
Boundary
Ecosystem service
Climate mitigation

Click to reveal answers a: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 10 b: 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10 c: 1, 2 d: 5 e: 1, 2, 6 f: 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 9, 10 g: 1, 2, 4, 6, 7 h: 4, 5, 9, 10 i: 1, 4, 9, 10 j: 4, 9, 10

Ecosystem Services:

Ecosystem services are commonly categorised into four categories: provisioning, cultural, regulating, supporting.

Apply the specific ecosystem services (letter a - v) to their appropriate category.

Provisioning d. Food and drink k. Materials p. Natural medicines g. Renewable and non-renewable energy c. Water supply

Regulating b. Carbon sequestration and storage n. Clean air q. Disease and natural pest control t. Erosion control i. Flood management r. Pollination u. Water purification

Cultural h. Inspiration v. Knowledge and learning o. Sense of place s. Spiritual and religious connections a. Tourism j. Wellbeing

Supporting f. Healthy soil l. Nutrient cycling m. Photosynthesis e. Space for wildlife

a. Tourism

b. Carbon sequestration and storage

c. Water supply

d. Food and drink

e. Space for wildlife

f. Healthy soil

g. Renewable and non-renewable energy

h. Inspiration

i. Flood management

j. Wellbeing

k. Materials

l. Nutrient cycling

m. Photosynthesis

n. Clean air

o. Sense of place

p. Natural medicines

q. Disease and natural pest control

r. Pollination

s. Spiritual and religious connections

t. Erosion control

u. Water purification

v. Knowledge and learning

This photo shows a tightly clipped Taxus baccata (yew) hedge and a gravel path.

What adaptations does Taxus baccata have that makes it suitable for use as a tightly clipped hedge?
What uses does the hedge photographed have in this garden?
What are the biodiversity implications of this hedge?

1. What adaptations does Taxus baccata have that makes it suitable for use as a tightly clipped hedge?

Taxus baccata has small, evergreen foliage and a dense growth habit that is tolerant of being clipped. Secondary thickening allows it to retain above ground stems throughout the year, allowing it to gain permanent height. This means it acts as a year-round dense green hedge.

2. What uses does the hedge photographed have in this garden?

This hedge adds height to this area and year-round structure. The top of the hedge offers a horizontal plane. The hedge acts as a screen and boundary within the garden.

3. What are the biodiversity implications of this hedge?

This hedge is tightly clipped, meaning it's disturbed regularly through the growing season. This can deter wildlife from using it for resting, nesting and other uses - reducing its biodiversity value. Taxus baccata is not popular fodder for herbivores, being toxic, and therefore is not a source of food - further reducing its potetial for biodiversity value. Only the fleshy red arils surrounding the seed is non-toxic and eaten by wildlife such as birds. However, as Yew is dioecious only half the population produces this food source. If the hedge photographed is all male plants, this means no arils will be produced.

This hedge is a monoculture, which inherently means there's a low biodiversity value as the plants are all the same species.

This photo shows a tightly clipped, woody evergreen plant situated within a lawn.

What one word is used to described tightly clipped plants such as the one central in the photo?
State the main uses of the central plant.
State the uses of turf in this garden area.

1. What one word is used to described tightly clipped plants such as the one central in the photo?

Topiary

2. State the main uses of the central plant.

The topiary provides height and structure in this otherwise flat area.
There are horizontal lines in the central and lower section of the topiary, allowing glimpses through to the area behind.
The trunk and conical top provide a vertical element, mirroring the triangular roof areas and chimneys of the building behind.
Formal topiary like this provides ecosystem services such as sense of place adjacent to this historic building and formal setting.

3. State the uses of turf in this garden area.

The turf is a horizontal plane, emphasising the upright topiary.
The turf absorbs rainfall, reducing runoff in this area where large amounts of hard standing can be seen. This reduces water entering mains drains and contributing to downstream flooding.
The turf potentially provides an area for recreation, allowing for play and relaxation.

This photo shows a planted area in summer, surrounded by turf.

What one word is used for the short term planting in this bed?
The purple-leaved Dahlia cv. running down the centre of this bed is made up of many clonal plants. What one word is used to describe many plants of the same species or cultivar?
What uses does the planted area have?

1. What one word is used for the short term planting in this bed?

Bedding

2. The purple-leaved Dahlia cv. running down the centre of this bed is made up of many clonal plants. What one word is used to describe many plants of the same species or cultivar?

Monoculture

3. What uses does the planted area have?

Height in comparison to the flat turf around it.
The Dahlia cv. offers a temporary vertical element with its upright habit, and its even height along the borer creates a horizontal plane, leading the eye down the border.
The Dahlia cv.'s single flowers offer nectar and pollen for pollinators.
This formal bedding provides ecosystem services through inspiration (e.g. from the Dahlia flowers), sense of place in a potentially Gardenesque greenspace, and supports pollinators which also pollinate food crops.

This photo shows a planted area adjacent to a path in summer.

Mixed borders like this are found in which historic garden style?
What uses do the golden leaved, small trees have in this area?
What uses does the low, enclosing hedge have in this area?
What uses does the planting within the border have?

1. Mixed borders like this are found in which historic garden style?

Arts and Crafts style

2. What uses do the golden leaved, small trees have in this area?

Height - the trunks create a vertical line against the mounded forms within the border
Structure through their repeated placement down the border
The trees cast a small amount of shade, reducing solar heating and light intensity on plants that they shade
Ecosystem services such as cultural inspiration through their ornamental golden leaves. Repetition ties into their use in this ornamental border that demonstrates a historic style, building sense of place. As woody plants they also sequester carbon, a regulating ecosystem service.

3. What uses does the low, enclosing hedge have in this area?

This hedge provides structure by creating a year-round formal edge to the border. It also demarcates the boundary of this border.
The hedge creates a horizontal plane running down the border.
The hedge provides an ecosystem service through its contribution to creating 'sense of place' in a historic garden style.

4. What uses does the planting within the border have?

The planting contains flowers that are attractive to pollinators that also pollinate crop plants. This is a supporting ecosystem service.
The ornamental planting provides cultural inspiration as an ecosystem service through its attractive aesthetic and opportunity to learn about the wildlife it attracts.
The planting aids in creating a sense of place, another cultural ecosystem service.
The border will absorb rainfall and any runoff from the adjacent path, reducing runoff as part of flood management - a regulating ecosystem service.
The border creates space for wildlife through its variety plants, a supporting ecosystem service.
This border of perennials allows for the preservation and development of healthy soils and nutrient cycling, a supporting ecosystem service.

The following points are typical of either traditional or organic growing methods in edible landscapes.

Assign each (numbered) statement to one of these categories.

Tends to build the humus content of soil.
Tends to damage soil structure over long time periods.
Primary cultivation of soil is undertaken annually, usually in winter.
Often combined with a 'no dig'/'minimal tillage' approach.
Pesticides are used to control pest outbreaks.
The soil can lose its carbon store over time.
Cover crops are commonly used, especially over winter.
Soil is usually mulched with organic matter after a crop is removed.
The soil is often left bare over winter.
Wind and water erosion of soil is more common, especially in winter.
Soil life is less disturbed and can be more biodiverse.
Fertilisers, when used, are derived from one-living sources, such as decomposed seaweed or well-rotted manure.
Synthetic fertilisers are commonly used.
Typically areas near to the edible growing space are turned into biodiverse wildlife refuges where natural predators can overwinter.

Traditional growing methods

Organic growing methods

Click to reveal answers 2, 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, 13

Click to reveal answers 1, 4, 7, 8, 10, 12, 14

The following statements about the biodynamic method are either true or false:

Originated with Dr Rudolph Steiner in the 1800's.
Is a purely scientific approach, with techniques based on years of scientific study.
There is an understanding that biodiverse spaces make for healthy ecosystems.
This method focuses solely on growing edible crops.
Planting and harvesting relates to the cycle of the moon.
Has been proven to yield greater harvests per area than other growing methods.

Click to reveal answers 1. False. It originated in the 1920's 2. False. It is a mixed scientific and spiritual approach. 3. True. 4. False. Animals are also reared. 5. True. 6. False.

This photo shows an edible landscape where herbs, flowers and vegetables are grown in the same space.

Name the style of edible landscape shown here.
Where did this style originate?
Compare this style to a traditional allotment.
State the advantages of this style of growing.
State the disadvantages of this style of growing.

1. Name the style of edible landscape shown here.

Potager

2. Where did this style originate?

France

3. Compare this style to a traditional allotment.

Potagers combine veg, herbs, fruit and flowers whereas traditional allotments keep these crops separate.
Potagers are both productive and offer creative aesthetic interest via coloured veg leaves, flowers, plant arrangement and layout. Traditional allotments grow crops is straight rows and generally arrange crops via a crop rotation system.
Potagers can have a higher biodiversity per area than traditional allotments due to the greater diversity of different plants and associated wildlife growing together.

4. State the advantages of this style of growing.

Potagers allow for a greater degree of creative flair, enhancing the enjoyment and wellbeing of growers.
The potentially higher plant biodiversity benefits garden wildlife, and can lead to lower incidence of pests as natural predators are harboured and overwinter within the garden.
A greater range of crops are grown within the garden, offering a richer variety of nutrition, benefitting physical health.
The attractive aesthetic offers inspiration and interest for the grower and visitors, improving mental wellbeing.

5. State the disadvantages of this style of growing.

It requires a higher level of planning and skill to achieve high standards given the higher variety of plants per area and ornamental intentions of the space.
Maintenance per area is more timely as crops may not be arranged in neat rows that can be efficiently accessed for weeding, harvesting etc.

Why do some growers undertake crop rotations in traditional and organic growing methods?

Crop rotations group edible into plants that are closely related and/or are affected by similar pests or pathogens. This allows for efficient prevention, monitoring and treatment of issues as they arise.

For example, brassicas are grouped into the same area because they are best covered with insect-proof mesh to prevent cabbage white butterflies landing on their leaves and laying eggs. This is a preventative measure.

Other crops, such as alliums and root crops may be planted in the same area as they have lower water requirements than other crops, meaning irrigation can be more targeted to reduce water waste.

Crop rotations on larger sites can prevent the build up of pests and/or pathogens in the area/soil vs. growing the same crop in the same area for many years. This is another preventative measure.

How can edible gardens be designed to maximise accessibility for all users?

The photo shows vegetables, herbs and edible flowers growing in a raised container.

What growing style is being used here?
What vegetable crops would not be suitable for this container?
What vegetable plant cannot be combined with other types of edible crop in the same container?
What are the maintenance issues with containerised growing of edible crops compared to those growing in soil at ground level?
State the sustainability considerations of containers used to grow edible crops.

1. What growing style is being used here?

Potager (mix of veg, herbs, flowers with ornamental qualities)

2. What vegetable crops would not be suitable for this container?

Root crops such as carrots or parsnips. Large crops would struggle to perform adequately with the limited root space. This includes: runner beans, sweetcorn, courgettes and squash.

3. What vegetable plant cannot be combined with other types of edible crop in the same container?

Potatoes cannot be combined with other crops as harvesting potatoes will disturb the growing media, and therefore other crops.

4. What are the maintenance issues with containerised growing of edible crops compared to those growing in soil at ground level?

Containerised crops need regular irrigation through the growing season unless there is ample rainfall. This is a regular time burden unless an automatic irrigation system is installed. In comparison, crops goring in soil at ground level can access water stored deeper in the soil and don't require as much irrigation.
Containerised plants have a limited volume of growing media that is not part of a natural soil system, therefore it sits outside of natural nutrient replenishment systems. Therefore containers will need fertilising with organic or synthetic fertiliser to ensure healthy plant growth. Crops planted in soil at ground level are part of the natural soil system where nutrients are replenished if organic inputs are sufficient. Therefore they don't require regular fertilising.
The growing media of containerised plants has limited soil organisms. If a pest, e.g. vine weevil, infests a container it's unlikely a natural predator will be able to control this pest, where as in healthy soil systems natural predators reduce this pest's population. Therefore containers can result in greater need for pest control.

5. State the sustainability considerations of containers used to grow edible crops.

The manufacture and transport of materials used to make containers has an embodied carbon footprint. Extraction of raw materials used to make containers also harms of destroys habitat, reducing biodiversity.

Some containers, such as wood and many types of plastic, have a limited lifespan. This means they need to be replaced periodically, which has a carbon footprint. Some types of plastic cannot be recycled easily and are likely to go to landfill.

However, some materials can be recycled, such as old metal containers. This means they do not need to go to landfill.

Materials like aluminium, frost-proof terracotta, fibreglass and stone are long lasting, meaning they do not need to be replaced very often.

In almost all situations, edible crops in containers will need irrigating through the growing season. This has a water footprint if the water cannot be sourced from waterbutts or other forms of saved water.

If synthetic fertilisers are used, these have a high carbon footprint of manufacture. All bought-in fertilisers have, to differing degrees, a processing, packaging and transport carbon footprint.

What is a community garden?
What is a community orchard?
How can community gardens and orchards benefit local communities?

1. What is a community garden?

Community gardens are public green spaces that are usually located in urban areas, or in proximity to residences if rural, e.g. in a village. They are spaces that are gardened by the community, typically registered as a charity and often volunteer led and operated. They occupy unused spaces or existing, under-resourced green space. Local people volunteer to maintain and develop the garden, usually with a mixture of edible crops and ornamentals, and often with a nature-friendly approach.

2. What is a community orchard?

A community orchard operates much like a community garden, as detailed above, but focuses on growing fruit trees. They are either started as a new feature, or neglected historic orchards are restored.

3. How can community gardens and orchards benefit local communities?

Local communities benefit from volunteering opportunities, allowing them to connect with nature, other local people and learn new skills. This helps people by building their confidence and local connections with people. Time spent outdoors in a natural space can benefit their mental wellbeing, as well as physical work benefitting their physical wellbeing.

Volunteers can take home fresh produce, which improves their nutritional intake.

Some community gardens and orchards donate food to organisations that distribute it to people in need.

State the difference between a city farm and a patchwork farm.
How do these types of farms benefit local communities beyond what's offered by community gardens and orchards?

1. State the difference between a city farm and a patchwork farm.

A city farm is based in one location whereas a patchwork farm is spread over a wider area, occupying separate parcels of land.

2. How do these types of farms benefit local communities beyond what's offered by community gardens and orchards?

City farms and patchwork farms involve community volunteers and give them access to different types of livestock. This can give urban residents experiences of farmed animals that they wouldn't otherwise have access to. This provides educational benefits. Handling livestock can also improve people's mental wellbeing.

This is a community garden within an urban area:

How does this planting benefit local biodiversity? The mix of woody and herbaceous plants inherently increases biodiversity and supports a range of wildlife by creating different niches. The shrub offers space for birds and flying insects to perch out of reach from ground predators. The herbaceous plants and low-growing shrub(s) provide cover and resting spaces for wildlife. Leaves, flowers and eventual fruits and seeds offers food for wildlife. Organic material on the ground, such as dead leaves, acts as food for soil detritivores and decomposers, supporting soil biodiversity.

How does this space benefit members of the public? The public can sit on the benches and enjoy moments of calm, surrounded by greenery and flowers, in contrast to the surrounding buildings. This gives them opportunity to connect with nature and watch urban wildlife. This can benefit mental wellbeing.

What is an edible hedge?
Name three species suitable for use in an edible hedge.
How can edible hedges benefit biodiversity?

1. What is an edible hedge?

An edible hedge is a hedge that's planted with species that have edible qualities, such as the production of fruit or nuts.

2. Name three species suitable for use in an edible hedge.

(List below is not exhaustive)

Corylus avellana (hazel)
Malus sylvestris (crab apple)
Prunus spinosa (blackthorn)
Ribes nigrum (blackcurrant)
Rubus idaeus (raspberry)
Sambucus nigra (elderberry)

3. How can edible hedges benefit biodiversity?

Edible hedges provide wildlife with shelter, nesting and resting spaces, and act as corridors for wildlife to move through. They also provide food via leaves, stems, flowers, fruits and seeds.

Name the four layers of plants used in forest gardening.
What are the benefits of forest gardens that are developed as edible landscapes?

1. Name the four layers of plants used in forest gardening.

Canopy trees
Understory layer of small trees and shrubs
Herbaceous perennials (taller)
Ground cover

2. What are the benefits of forest gardens that are developed as edible landscapes?

Forest gardens produce a range of different crop types at different times of the year from one area. This is space efficient, although the range of crops is limited.

Wildlife benefit from the range of different niches and food sources forests gardens offer, improving local biodiversity.

This planted area between a road and pavement in an urban area is being cared for by a local resident.

What term is given to this type of gardening?
State the potential benefits of this to the local area.
What three factors must be considered when undertaking this type of gardening to avoid causing problems?

1. What term is given to this type of gardening?

Guerilla gardening

2. State the potential benefits of this to the local area.

The range of plants is higher than it would otherwise be, increasing local plant biodiversity. In turn, wildlife biodiversity benefits: flowers attract pollinators, leaves and stems offer food for wildlife, and dead stems in winter offer overwintering habitat.
This colourful planting has visual appeal, improving people's mood and benefitting mental wellbeing.
People may feel inspired to undertake similar gardening activities, furthering the aforementioned benefits. Those who undertake the gardening activity improve their physical health.

3. What three factors must be considered when undertaking this type of gardening to avoid causing problems?

No toxic plants, invasive species or plants with roots that can cause structural damage to buildings or paving.
Plants must not be allowed to become trip hazards or otherwise endanger the public.
All structures (e.g. signs, edging) must be removable.

1. Define the term 'short-term planting'.

a. Name three examples of short-term planting.

b. Which one of these offers the most benefits to wildlife?

c. Explain your answer part b.

3. Name the garden style where short-term planting is used to create a 'carpet' effect.

4. State the garden situations in which 'carpet' effect short-term planting is traditionally used.

1. Define the term 'short-term planting'.

Short-term planting is where plantings are temporary, often lasting for a winter or summer season. They are planted (or sown) at the start of their season and removed at the end of that season. Short-term planting has a purpose, such as aesthetic impact, recreational interest or biodiversity/wildlife benefit.

a. Name three examples of short-term planting.

Traditional bedding
Annual meadows
Maize mazes

b. Which one of these offers the most benefits to wildlife?

Annual meadows

c. Explain your answer part b.

Annual meadows contain a mixture of different species. These produce nectar for pollinators when in flower. Their leaves and stems are food for wildlife, as well as giving cover and shelter to garden wildlife. Organic debris that lands on the soil surface is food for soil detritivores, benefitting soil wildlife.

This contrasts to maize mazes, which are a monoculture that doesn't support a high diversity of wildlife. Traditional bedding often has double flowers with inaccessible nectar, and the plants used are less likely to be food plants for wildlife.

3. Name the garden style where short-term planting is used to create a 'carpet' effect.

Gardenesque

4. State the garden situations in which 'carpet' effect short-term planting is traditionally used.

Carpet bedding is used in formal parterres and in island beds within turf, commonly seen in Victorian-era Gardenesque style parks and landscapes.

Tender or half-hardy plants that are not grown from seed can be used to create formal short-term plantings in summer.

How are these plants usually propagated?
Name the garden style that coincides with the mass overwintering of tender and half hardy plants used for short-term plantings.
How are these plants maintained over winter?
Describe the environmental implications of overwintering these plants.

1. How are these plants usually propagated?

These plants are propagated via clonal methods, usually stem cuttings. A relatively small number of species can be propagated via leaf lamina or petiole cuttings, but this is far less common.

2. Name the garden style that coincides with the mass overwintering of tender and half hardy plants used for short-term plantings.

Gardenesque style.

3. How are these plants maintained over winter?

Tender and half-hardy perennials are potted up and overwintered in heated glasshouses. Sometimes rooted cuttings taken in summer are overwintered, but the whole plant can also be removed from its outdoor location and potted up for overwintering. Plants are kept at a suitable temperature - always above freezing - and watered as needed. Half-hardy plants can be kept cooler through winter, whereas tender perennials need a greater degree of heating to overwinter successfully.

4. Describe the environmental implications of overwintering these plants.

Tender and half-hardy perennials used for summer bedding need to be overwintered in either frost-free (for half-hardy perennials) or heated (for tender perennials) glasshouses. The raw material extraction, manufacture and transport of glasshouses has a high carbon footprint. Heating these structures also has a high carbon footprint. Often pests and pathogens need to be controlled. Many growers will use pesticides during the winter when temperatures aren't ideal for natural predators. Pesticides are harmful if they get into the environment and have a manufacture and transport carbon footprint.

The propagation of these plants often needs specialist equipment, such as misting benches. This also has an embodied carbon footprint.

Plants need to be potted when they're overwintered. Pots are usually plastic, the manufacture and transport of which has a carbon footprint. Not all plastic can be recycled so some amy end up in landfill. Overwintering plants are usually potted into bought-in, clean/sterile compost to reduce the risk of pests, pathogens and weeds germinating vs. using in-garden produced compost. Bought in compost has a transport carbon footprint and may be delivered in plastic bags that can't easily be recycled.

Watering of potted plants has a water footprint as mains or pumped borehole water is usually used on a large scale.

In early-mid spring overwintered plants are commonly given additional fertiliser, e.g. via fertigation, to boost their growth. Often the fertiliser is synthetic, which has a high manufacture carbon footprint, and a transport carbon footprint.

Match the type of bedding plant to its definition:

A. Hardy annual

B. Half-hardy annual

C. Hardy (often short-lived) perennial

D. Tender perennial

E. Bulb

F. Shrub

A leaf adaptation to enable survival over their dormant season.
A plant that can be killed by frost, and has a life cycle of more than two years.
A plant that can survive periods below freezing, and lives for more than two years.
A plant that is killed by frost, and has a life cycle of one year.
A woody plant that's branched from at or near ground level.
A plant with a life cycle of one year and is not killed by frost.

Click to reveal answers A: 6 B: 4 C: 3 D: 2 E: 1 F: 5

The photo shows an area of short term planting in summer.

State the type of short-term planting photographed.
The orange/yellow flowers in the foreground are double flowers. What implications does this have for pollinating insects?
How has colour theory been applied here?
What commonalities do these plants have in their growth habit?
Describe the impact of short-term planting on soil health.

1. State the type of short-term planting photographed.

Traditional bedding / carpet bedding

2. The orange/yellow flowers in the foreground are double flowers. What implications does this have for pollinating insects?

Double flowers do not have nectaries that are easily accessed by pollinators, preventing them from feeding. Pollinators can waste energy flying from flower to flower without a nectar reward.

3. How has colour theory been applied here?

This is a dichromatic colour scheme with contrasting hot colours of red and orange/lime-yellow

4. What commonalities do these plants have in their growth habit?

These plants all have a compact, dense and low growth habit. Flowers (where present) are held above the leaves.

5. Describe the impact of short-term planting on soil health.

Before planting the soil typically undergoes primary cultivation, either via rotavating or digging. This damages the soil structure and harms soil life such as fungal mycorrhizae and earthworms. The increased oxygen content leads to a loss of soil humus, reducing water and nutrient holding capacity of the soil.

Planting bedding also disturbs soil. The common addition of synthetic fertiliser reduces rhizosphere health, which negatively impacts on soil biodiversity and therefore soil health.

Removing plants at the end of the season once again harms the soil structure and soil life, harming soil health.