Horticulture and Society

Jump to each topic by clicking on the relevant box below

Gardening can benefit physical health and mental health. Apply the following statements to either physical health benefits or mental health benefits:

Friendly conversations with passing neighbours when tending the front garden
Planting tulips in a border
Mulching a border with bark
Hearing bird song in the garden
Mindfulness through focusing on deadheading roses, excluding other thoughts
Moving a wheelbarrow to where it is needed
Eating freshly grown produce from the garden
Noticing signs of spring when you pop into the garden in March
The scent of lavender on the breeze
Walking around the garden to see how the plants are doing

Physical health

Mental health

Click to reveal answers 2, 3, 6, 7 (nutrition), 10

Click to reveal answers 1, 4, 5, 8, 9

What is horticultural therapy?
Name three planting features commonly found in horticultural therapy spaces.
What ideas of colour theory are usually applied in horticultural therapy spaces?

1. What is horticultural therapy?

Horticultural therapy is where activities that improve mental and/or physical health take place in a garden setting, including undertaking gardening activities.

2. Name three planting features commonly found in horticultural therapy spaces.

Sensory gardens, edible landscapes, contemplation areas, water features, wildlife attracting features.

3. What ideas of colour theory are usually applied in horticultural therapy spaces?

Cool colours are used, such as purple, blue, white, pink, pale yellow and greens. Cool colours are calming, creating an ambience better suited for horticultural therapy activities.

Social benefits of gardening:

Name three types of garden situations where local people can gather for gardening activities
What are the negative impacts of social isolation?
How do the gardening situations named in Q1 help overcome the impacts of social isolation?
What other benefits does gardening in a social setting offer?

1. Name three types of garden situations where local people can gather for gardening activities

Community gardens
Community orchards
City farms
Patchwork farms
Public garden volunteer programmes

2. What are the negative impacts of social isolation?

Social isolation can lead to feelings of loneliness, anxiety, low confidence, pessimism and can contribute to a person developing depression.

3. How do the gardening situations named in Q1 help overcome the impacts of social isolation?

Social gardening brings people together to undertake gardening activities that are guided and structured, making them accessible. This reduces potential anxiety over participating something new.
Participants meet local people and make social connections. As the focus is gardening, conversation can be made over a shared interest. This can help reduce social anxiety.
Gardening activities are typically undertaken on a regular basis, e.g. weekly, creating routines for participants and ensuring they leave their residence to spend time outdoors in a green setting.
Participants learn new skills and knowledge, boosting their confidence.

4. What other benefits does gardening in a social setting offer?

Physical health benefits when participants undertake manual gardening activities and walk within the green setting.
If edible crops are grown, participants can take home fresh, nutritional produce to benefit their physical health.
As people spend more time in proximity to plants and wildlife they often become more appreciative of them. This can lead people to support biodiversity and nature-friendly programmes, benefitting Britains green spaces and biodiversity.

This allotment is growing a mixture of fruit, vegetables and flowers.

Name the style of productive growing where edible crops and flowers are mixed.
State the social benefits of having an allotment.
State the physical wellbeing benefits of having an allotment.
What are the biodiversity benefits of the allotment pictured?

1. Name the style of productive growing where edible crops and flowers are mixed.

Potager

2. State the social benefits of having an allotment.

Allotments bring people in proximity with other allotment holders. Social connections and cultural exchanges can be made through a shared interest.
People who live alone and/or experience social isolation can make social connections.
People who live in residents without gardens (e.g. flats/apartments) and renters who are not able to alter their gardens can grow productive crops. This gives them access to green space they can garden on, improving their mental wellbeing.
People can learn new knowledge and skills from each other, improving their gardening ability and confidence.

3. State the physical wellbeing benefits of having an allotment.

Allotment work is manual work, benefitting physical health through exercise.
Edible crops are nutritious, benefitting physical health.

4. What are the biodiversity benefits of the allotment pictured?

The allotment has a dense covering of plants, with a mixture of flowers and edible crops. The dense vegetation provides cover, resting and potentially breeding spaces for wildlife. For example, ladybirds may lay eggs on leaves where aphids are found. Pollinators are attracted to the abundance of flowers. In comparison, traditional allotments may have lower wildlife associations due to a more open vegetation and fewer flowers.

The wood chip pathways buffer the soil from foot-fall, reducing the potential for soil compaction. This helps to maintain and develop healthy soil biodiversity. Decomposers feed on the woodchip, slowly breaking it down - further benefitting soil biodiversity.

During what period of history did public parks start appearing? The industrial revolution during the 18th Century, in the Victorian era.

Why were public parks created in urban areas? During the industrial revolution, factory workers' health was notoriously poor due to their work and living conditions. The creation of public parks gave workers green space for recreation, improving their health. Parks were also created for the wealthy, rising middle class in proximity to the areas they lived in.

How did 'dig for victory' utilise public parks? During the second world war public parks were used to grow edible crops. This improved people's nutrition during rationing and allowed non-military people to contribute to the war effort.

Define the term 'air pollution'
What is PM 10 and PM 2.5?
What are the implications of inhaling PM 10 and PM 2.5?
Plants can be used to mitigate air pollution. State an adaptation that can increase the capture of pollutants in the air.

1. Define the term 'air pollution'

Air pollution is the addition of substances that can be harmful to human health to the atmosphere/air. It can be caused by people, such as burning fossil fuels, or naturally as the result of forest fires or volcanic activity.

2. What is PM 10 and PM 2.5?

PM stands for 'particulate matter'. PM 10 is particulate matter smaller than 10 micrometers. PM 2.5 is particulate matter smaller than 2.5 micrometers. Both can be carried in the air and are types of air pollution.

3. What are the implications of inhaling PM 10 and PM 2.5?

Both PM 10 and PM 2.5 can be inhaled and are small enough to pass into the bloodstream, particularly the smaller PM 2.5 particles. PM in the bloodstream is associated with increased risk of diseases such as heart disease.

a. Name the other major type of air pollution that is not PM.

Gasses

b. Give two examples for your answer to part a).

Nitrous oxides, sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide, VOC (volatile organic compounds), ground-level ozone

5. Plants can be used to mitigate air pollution. State an adaptation that can increase the capture of pollutants in the air.

Plants with hirsute leaves and stems are able to capture particulate matter and other pollutants from the air.

1. How can gardens be adapted to maximise the capture of air pollution?

2. What other benefits can this bring?

3. Some green spaces the decision is made not to adapt them to maximise the capture of air pollution. Describe the justifications behind this.

1. How can gardens be adapted to maximise the capture of air pollution?

Gardens should be planted with a periphery hedge, ideally with species that have hirsute leaves and/or a dense growth habit. Within the garden a range of plant types should be grown to further filter and capture air pollution. Trees and taller shrubs capture air pollution higher up; herbaceous plants capture pollutants from the air closer to ground level. Trees and shrubs should be underplanted. Lawns should be minimised as these do not have a significant role in capturing air pollution. This matrix of plants, with an emphasis on dense mixed planting, maximises leaf and stem surface area, increasing the potential for capture of air pollution.

2. What other benefits can this bring?

Gardens that are planted with a diverse range of plants - trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants of varied species - are higher in plant biodiversity. This fosters a higher biodiversity of garden wildlife, benefitting the environment.
Gardens that are rich in plant life and wildlife can bring greater positivity for mental wellbeing in comparison to gardens that are predominantly lawn.
The density of plants and high overall leaf surface area helps to cool gardens in summer, which is important for health in hot summers.
The reduction in lawn and increase in dense, layered planting also improves the capture of rainfall. This is important in reducing runoff during heavy rain events, reducing contribution to downstream flood risk, as well as reducing potential for soil erosion.

3. Some green spaces the decision is made not to adapt them to maximise the capture of air pollution. Describe the justifications behind this.

Some historic garden styles, such as Renaissance style and Gardenesque style have limited scope for adapting some areas to maximise capture of air pollution, such as open parterres or extensive lawns. In order to preserve these historic styles for cultural and educational purposes, they may not be adapted to maximise capture of air pollution.

Public green spaces such as urban parks justify keeping extensive areas of turf as these are highly used for recreation, benefitting local people's mental and physical wellbeing.

Edible landscapes such as allotments also have limited scope for planting trees and shrubs as these shade the ground, preventing successful growth of many vegetable crops.

Each number relates to a specific word, so if you think (1)________ is 'bananas' then if (1)________ appears later on in the passage, 'bananas' is the missing word.

Climate change is leading to an increased likelihood of prolonged high temperatures during (1) ________, which can be harmful to health. This is especially pronounced in urban areas due to the (2) ________ ________ ________ effect, which leads to higher temperatures than (3) ________ areas.

Plants can be used to mitigate this. (4) ________ can be used to shade hard surfaces such as (5) ________ in urban areas, meaning people can walk through towns and cities with less heat stress. In gardens, (4) ________ can be planted to shade patios and decks where people gather. Building surfaces exposed to hot sunlight, such as (6) ________ or west facing walls, can have (7) ________ plants grown up them. This can reduce internal heating of buildings - helpful in reducing the use of (8) ________ ________, for example in commercial buildings. In addition, flat-roofed buildings can have (9) ________ roof's installed. These (10) i________ buildings from heating during hot weather.

In addition to casting shade, plants cool the air via (11) ________ from the stomata of their leaves. Green spaces that are (12) d________ planted, especially with multiple layers of vegetation such as (13) f________ gardens, have a greater surface area of leaves and therefore potential for greater cooling.

After rain, (14) ________ of raindrops on plant surfaces also leads to cooling. This is helpful in (1) ________, for example reducing the rate of air heating if the sun comes out after rainfall.

Climate change is leading to an increased likelihood of prolonged high temperatures during (1) summer, which can be harmful to health. This is especially pronounced in urban areas due to the (2) urban heat island effect, which leads to higher temperatures than (3) rural areas.

Plants can be used to mitigate this. (4) trees can be used to shade hard surfaces such as (5) pavements in urban areas, meaning people can walk through towns and cities with less heat stress. In gardens, (4) trees can be planted to shade patios and decks where people gather. Building surfaces exposed to hot sunlight, such as (6) south or west facing walls, can have (7) climbing plants grown up them. This can reduce internal heating of buildings - helpful in reducing the use of (8) air conditioning, for example in commercial buildings. In addition, flat-roofed buildings can have (9) green roof's installed. These (10) insulate buildings from heating during hot weather.

In addition to casting shade, plants cool the air via (11) transpiration from the stomata their leaves. Green spaces that are (12) densely planted, especially with multiple layers of vegetation such as (13) forest gardens, have a greater surface area of leaves and therefore potential for greater cooling.

After rain, (14) evaporation of raindrops on plant surfaces also leads to cooling. This is helpful in (1) summer, for example reducing the rate of air heating if the sun comes out after rainfall.

Hint: the missing words in a random order insulate, pavements, green, summer, climbing, rural, evaporation, urban heat island, trees, air conditioning, south, densely, transpiration, forest

Extra Hint: (1) summer

Extra Hint: (2) urban heat island

Extra Hint: (3) rural

Extra Hint: (4) trees

Extra Hint: (5) pavements

Extra Hint: (6) south

Extra Hint: (7) climbing

Extra Hint: (8) air conditioning

Extra Hint: (9) green

Extra Hint: (10) insulate

Extra Hint: (11) transpiration

Extra Hint: (12) densely

Extra Hint: (13) forest

Extra Hint: (14) evaporation

How can dense hedging reduce noise pollution?
How can noise pollution be masked in a garden setting?

1. How can dense hedging reduce noise pollution?

Dense hedging has a high surface area of foliage, which can absorb vibrations of air particles - therefore buffering sound.

[note that it's important to appreciate that plants can buffer sounds and reduce their volume, but they do not eliminate them]

2. How can noise pollution be masked in a garden setting?

Plants that produce rustling noises, such as bamboos or tall grasses like Miscanthus sinensis can mask unwanted sounds.

Water features with falling water, such as fountains, can also mask unwanted sounds.

It's June and this bed has just been planted. The gardener is happy with how it looks.

What is likely to happen if there is a heavy rainfall event?
What are the implications of your answer to Q1?
What advice would you give to the gardener of this area in order to better manage water-related issues in this bed? You should explain your advice so they understand the reasoning behind your suggestions.

1. What is likely to happen if there is a heavy rainfall event?

It's likely that the soil will not be able to absorb heavy rainfall at the rate it lands on the soil surface, resulting in runoff. This will wash away valuable top soil and contribute to potential flooding.

In addition, heavy rain landing on the soil surface will cap the soil (create a shallow compacted layer at the surface), reducing the rate of infiltration leading to more runoff.

2. What are the implications of your answer to Q1?

If topsoil is washed away, valuable nutrients, organic matter and soil organisms can be lost with it. Roots can become exposed and desiccate in hot, dry weather.

Washed away soil can silt up drains and reduce their capacity to transport water, resulting in an increased risk of water backing up and localised flooding occuring.

Soil capping results in increased runoff and decreased absorption of water into the soil, especially if heavy rain events are brief in duration. This can lead to potentially dry soil conditions despite heavy rainfall, negatively impacting plant establishment and health.

3. What advice would you give to the gardener of this area in order to better manage water-related issues in this bed? You should explain your advice so they understand the reasoning behind your suggestions.

This bed is very sparsely planted, meaning there is not much foliage to buffer the soil from falling raindrops, therefore reducing risk of soil capping. This area needs more plants, even if only annuals are used prior to the long-term plantings filling in. Bare soil should not be visible. Plant cover will buffer falling raindrops to reduce capping risk, and shade the soil to reduce soil heating, reducing evaporative moisture losses.

The bed needs to be mulched with organic matter. This will buffer the soil from falling rain, reducing capping, and shade the soil to reduce evaporative moisture loss. In addition, it provides food for decomposers, benefitting soil biodiversity and resulting in an increase in soil humus. Humus improves the soil's ability to hold water and nutrients, improving conditions for roots.

The soil level appears to be high adjacent to the stone edging, meaning runoff will go straight onto the path. It would be wise to adjust the soil level down on the approach to the edge so the soil level is below the stone edging. This creates an area where any runoff can pool and soak in. This must be combined with dense planting and mulch to reduce risk of soil erosion.

In future, do not plant up beds in the summer. Plant in autumn or early spring. This gives plant roots time to establish before the risk of dry summer weather.

Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas. It is also reactant in which chemical reaction that occurs in plants?
Why is carbon dioxide increasing in concentration in the atmosphere?
Greenhouse gasses lead to global warming. Why are climate scientists worried about global warming?
How can gardeners use plants to reduce the volume of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere?

1. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas. It is also reactant in which chemical reaction that occurs in plants?

Photosynthesis

2. Why is carbon dioxide increasing in concentration in the atmosphere?

As a result of humans burning fossil fuels, releasing carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

Deforestation means less carbon dioxide is absorbed by woody plants, therefore less is extracted from the atmosphere and stored for long time periods. In addition, when forests aren't replaced, the ultimate loss and burning or decomposition of wood results in release of carbon dioxide.

As cold regions warm as a result of global warming the carbon store in their soil is increasingly broken down by decomposers, which are more active in warmer conditions. This ultimately results in carbon dioxide being released into the atmosphere. In addition, forest cleared for farming suffers a net loss of soil organic matter, also releasing stored soil carbon as carbon dioxide.

3. Greenhouse gasses lead to global warming. Why are climate scientists worried about global warming?

Global warming causes climate change. Climate change means weather patterns shift, affecting plant growth. Warmer air holds more moisture which can result in heavier rainfall events that cause flooding. High wind events are also becoming more common, as are prolonged high temperatures and prolonged periods of dry or wet weather. This all affects plant growth, wildlife and the capacity of land to support populations.

4. How can gardeners use plants to reduce the volume of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere?

Plants absorb carbon dioxide through their leaves and, during photosynthesis, capture the carbon via the product: glucose. Woody plants produce lignin with carbon originating from the glucose molecule. Lignin is a carbon-based substance that ultimately results in a carbon store over a long time period. This means carbon dioxide is not returned to the atmosphere. Therefore gardeners should include trees and shrubs (woody plants) in their gardens to provide a long term carbon store.

All plants shed leaves, old stems etc. and eventually die. They are decomposed, resulting in humus building in the soil. Some humus is washed deep into soil where it is very slow to break down further, ultimately storing carbon for very long time periods. Gardeners should allow plant debris to decompose in situ, for example by leaving plant clippings on the soil surface, or by composting all garden waste within the garden. Woody prunings can be made into log piles.

Define the term 'carbon footprint' The amount of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from a particular activity or process.

What happens to single use plastic after it has served its purpose? Single use plastics go to landfill

Why are black plastic pots problematic vs. other colours? Recycling machines can't read the codes on the base of black plastic pots, meaning they can't be recycled easily and often end up in landfill.

Relate each of the following negative impacts of horticulture (numbers) to the most appropriate category (letters).

Some may relate to more than one category.

Negative impact:

Planting out a bed in July when hot weather is forecast for the next week
Growing media that originates from bogs that have been drained
Broken paving slabs from a garden renovation
Black plastic pots used to grow plants
Extraction of rock to make paving stones
Keeping lawns green throughout summer, no matter what the weather
Maintaining containerised plant health in dry weather
Transport of plants from plant nursery to garden
Operation of a petrol lawnmower
A terracotta pot that's shattered due to frost damage
Perforated plastic bags used to package flower bulbs
Your neighbour irrigating plants overhead on a hot afternoon
A rotten old shed that is not wanted
Old plant labels

Category:

A. Carbon footprint

B. Machinery emissions

C. Peat extraction

D. Single use plastic

E. Water management

F. Heating of glasshouses

G. Waste and end of life implications

Click to reveal answers 1 - E 2 - C 3 - G 4 - D, G 5 - A, B 6 - E 7 - E 8 - A, B 9 - A, B 10 - G 11 - D, G 12 - E 13 - G 14 - G

Decide if the following statements are true or false about expected changes to the UK climate:

Winters will be less rainy
High wind events become more common
Frost becomes less common
Summers will experience more regular rainfall
Heat events will be more prolonged
Low winter temperatures will no longer occur
Each summer will be hotter than the last
Heavy rainfall events become more common
Winters have more sunshine hours
Snow events become less common

Click to reveal answers 1 - False 2 - True 3 - True 4 - False 5 - True 6 - False 7 - False 8 - True 9 - False 10 - True

How can gardens be adapted to mitigate the following:

Heatwaves with very high temperatures
Heavy rainfall events
Winter storms with very high winds
Prolonged dry weather in summer

1. Heatwaves with very high temperatures

Increase the amount of shade cast by trees through increased tree planting.
Reduce the area of hard surfaces, which absorb heat and radiate it back out, resulting in higher temperatures.
Increase the density of plants, including layering of plants (canopy, understory, ground cover), to increase total transpiration, cooling the air.
Grow heat-tolerant climbers up walls to reduce wall heating and radiating heat back into the garden.
Replace plants that are not tolerant of very high temperatures with more heat tolerant species.

2. Heavy rainfall events

Increase density of planting, including layering of plants (canopy, understory, ground cover), to intercept raindrops and slow its journey to the ground. They also buffer the soil from surface capping.
Mulch the soil to protect it from raindrop impact, reducing surface capping. This ensures soil can absorb water at a maximum rate.
Reduce lawn area and hard surface area (especially impermeable hard surfaces) as these tend to result in runoff during heavy rain. Instead, increase the planted area in a garden.

3. Winter storms with very high winds

Plant hedges around the garden periphery, and potentially within gardens to create 'rooms'. This will buffer and break up high winds. Avoid closed-panel fences and walls as these create eddies.
Avoid planting large trees with weak wood, such as Eucalyptus. Plant smaller trees that don't catch as much wind and are less likely to be damaged.
Increasing the layering and density of woody plants within a garden helps to buffer and break up winds, in addition to hedges.
Large gardens could consider a wind break of small to medium sized trees in addition to hedges - these should be sited to the south west, buffering the prevailing strong winds.

4. Prolonged dry weather in summer

Mulch soil to reduce evaporative moisture loss. This will also preserve high infiltration rates into the soil during rainfall, meaning soil is likely to have a higher water store prior to dry weather.
Planting trees to cast shade will reduce the loss of water from soil due to reduced soil heating and resulting evaporative water losses.
Ensure there is a dense covering of plants at ground level to further shade soil and reduce evaporative losses.
Plant species that are adapted to survive dry soil in summer, such as Mediterranean species. Replace plants that require irrigation in dry weather to remain healthy, such as Hydrangea macrophylla, especially on soils that are inherently poor at retaining moisture. This includes sandy soils and soils over chalk bedrock.

State alternative ways that plants can be acquired for gardens without using plastic pots.
What other environmental benefits are there of acquiring plants that are not in plastic pots?

1. State alternative ways that plants can be acquired for gardens without using plastic pots.

Deciduous trees, shrubs and some deciduous herbaceous perennials can be purchased bare root.
Bulbs, corms, stem tubers, root tubers and some rhizomatous plants can be obtained when dormant without growing media/pot
Biodegradable pots such as those mace from coconut fibre can be used to grow plants for sale.

2. What other environmental benefits are there of acquiring plants that are not in plastic pots?

Bare root plants and bulbs, corms, stem tubers, root tubers and rhizomatous plants acquired as un-potted specimens have a lower transport carbon footprint due to being lighter vs. plants grown and transported in pots.
These plants are also grown in the open ground and only dug up when dormant so they can be sold. This reduces their water footprint vs. plants grown in pots for sale.

Garden tourism:

In 2018 garden tourism contributed approximately how much to the UK economy?

a. £150 million

b. £800 million

C. £1.7 billion

d. £2.9 billion

e. £4.1 billion

Click to reveal answer d. 2.9 billion

Plant Production:

What was the production of plants sold in the UK horticulture sector valued at between 2022-2023?

a. £1.7 billion

b. £2.5 billion

c. £3.4 billion

d. £5.9 billion

Click to reveal answer a. 1.7 billion

Arboriculture

Approximately what is the contribution of arboriculture to the UK economy?

a. £652 million

b. £709 million

c. £843 million

d. £925 million

Click to reveal answer b. 709 million

Garden Maintenance and Landscaping:

1. In 2019 the ongoing maintenance of green spaces and landscaping projects contributed approximately how much to the UK economy?

a. £900 million

b. £28 billion

C. £53 billion

d. £102 billion

2. Approximately how many jobs does this sector support, according to 2019 data?

a. 100,000

b. 300,000

c. 500,000

d. 700,000

Click to reveal answers Q1. b. 28 billion Q2. c. 500,000

Food Production

In 2023 approximately how much did each of the following contribute to the UK economy?

Q1. UK grown vegetables

a. £800 million

b. £1.1 billion

c. £1.7 billion

d. £1.9 billion

Q2. UK grown fruit

a. £600 million

b. £800 million

c. £1 billion

d. £1.2 billion

Click to reveal answers Q1. d. 1.9 billion Q2. c. 1 billion

Contribution of wild bees to the economy:

Q1. Approximately what percentage of UK insect pollinated crops are pollinated by wild bees?

a. 55 - 60%

b. 70 - 80%

c. 75 - 90%

d. 80 - 95%

Q2. What is some of the remaining percentage pollinated by?

a. By hand by farmers

b. By hived bees

c. By birds

d. By wind

Q3. What is this free service estimated to be worth each year?

a. £900 million

b. £1.3 billion

c. £1.5 billion

d. £1.8 billion

Click to reveal answers Q1. d. 80 - 95% Q2. b. By hived bees Q3. d. £1.8 billion

Note that AO2 (application) and AO3 (integration) in this element has largely been covered by other areas of this topic

State the benefits of community horticulture

List different types of community horticulture projects

What are the benefits of teaching children about plants and gardening, for example in a school setting or community garden?

What are the benefits of volunteer programmes in heritage gardens?

Volunteers provide an essential service in heritage gardens that do not have funding for a sufficient professional gardening staff. This enables underfunded heritage gardens to maintain their intended aesthetic as part of Britain's cultural heritage.

Well maintained heritage gardens also offer educational value and contribute to Britain's tourism industry, supporting jobs.

Volunteers benefit from knowledge and skills gain, social connections and exercise, which is good for physical health.

What is Britain in Bloom?

What are community kitchens within gardens?